Ventricular structure
Left Ventricle (LV)
Diameter
Longitudinal diameter
Definition: Distance between the mitral valve plane and the LV apex (major axis)(Aquaro et al. 2017)
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
End-diastolic:
Study Cohort Size Imaging modality Gender Age Reference Value (mm) Note (Aquaro et al. 2017) 28 HLA male 41-50 91-112 29 HLA male 51-60 87-111 28 HLA male >60 85-110 23 HLA female 41-50 80-100 22 HLA female 51-60 75-99 23 HLA female >60 67-96 Note: The extracted phenotypes are smaller than the reference ranges, as we only reach the uppermost part of mitral valve, instead of the plane of mitral valve.
Clinical Associations: Increased in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM) (Bi et al. 2022)
ICC:
End-diastolic: 0.80 (HLA)
End-systolic: Note: 0.41 (HLA)
Transversal diameter
Definition: Distance between the basal inferior septum and basal anterolateral wall(Aquaro et al. 2017)
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
End-diastolic:
Study Cohort Size Imaging modality Gender Reference Value (mm) Note (Kawel-Boehm et al. 2020) 227 HLA male 42-62 188 HLA female 39-59 400 SAX male 44-62 572 SAX female 41-57 End-systolic:
Study Cohort Size Imaging modality Gender Reference Value (mm) Note (Kawel-Boehm et al. 2020) 54 HLA male 26-38 53 HLA female 16-40 60 SAX male 28-40 60 SAX female 23-39
ICC:
End-diastolic: 0.71 (SAX), 0.65 (HLA)
End-systolic: 0.75 (SAX), 0.55 (HLA)
<figure> <img src="/latex/images/ventricle/LV_diameter.png" id="fig:LV_diameter" alt="Measurement of longitudinal and transversal diameters in a healthy male (upper panel) and female (lower panel) in HLA view" /><figcaption aria-hidden="true">Measurement of longitudinal and transversal diameters in a healthy male (upper panel) and female (lower panel) in HLA view</figcaption> </figure>
Volume (LVEDV, LVESV)
Graphically, the cardiac cycle can be represented with a pressure-volume graph shown below. The electrical and mechanical events during the cardiac cycle are summarised together in the Wiggers diagram below.
<figure> <img src="/latex/images/ventricle/pressure-volume%20change.png" id="fig:wigger" alt="The Wiggers diagram follows left heart and aortic pressures, left ventricular volume, and the ECG through one cardiac cycle. (Silverthorn et al. 2013)" /><figcaption aria-hidden="true">The Wiggers diagram follows left heart and aortic pressures, left ventricular volume, and the ECG through one cardiac cycle. <span>(Silverthorn et al. 2013)</span></figcaption> </figure>
<figure> <img src="/latex/images/ventricle/Wigger%27s%20Diagram.png" id="fig:wigger" alt="The Wiggers diagram follows left heart and aortic pressures, left ventricular volume, and the ECG through one cardiac cycle. (Silverthorn et al. 2013)" /><figcaption aria-hidden="true">The Wiggers diagram follows left heart and aortic pressures, left ventricular volume, and the ECG through one cardiac cycle. <span>(Silverthorn et al. 2013)</span></figcaption> </figure>
At the end of atrial systole in the cardiac cycle, the ventricle contain the largest volume they will hold during the cycle. This maximal volume is called the end-diastolic volume (EDV). As the ventricles contrast, the heart does not empty itself completely of blood each time the ventricle contracts. The volume of blood left in the ventricle at the end of contraction is known as the end-systolic volume (ESV) (Silverthorn et al. 2013).
Definition: Volume of LV cavity.
Calculation:
Two approaches are frequently adopted for measuring the volume: Simpson’s rule and area-length method (ALM).
In Simpson’s rule, the volume of a cavity is estimated by the sum of the cross-sectional area of multiple single slices multiplied by the slice thickness (Hergan et al. 2008).
The ALM method is based on a rotational ellipsoid with the volume calculated as V = 0.85 × A<sup>2</sup>/L for area A and length L (Hergan et al. 2008).
Other algorithms for determining the LV volume, such as the modified Simpson’s rule, can be found in (Folland et al. 1979)
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
End-diastolic:
Study Cohort Size Gender Reference Value (mL) Note (Kawel-Boehm et al. 2020) 464 male (155, 30) papillary muscles included in mass 485 female (123, 22) papillary muscles included in mass 832 male (145, 31) papillary muscles included in volume 1064 female (112, 21) papillary muscles included in volume (Hudsmith et al. 2005) 63 male (160, 29) 45 female (135, 26) (Suinesiaputra et al. 2018) 4413 (144, 34.3) 48% male in full cohort with size 4874 (Petersen et al. 2017) 368 male 109-218 432 female 88-161 End-systolic:
Study Cohort Size Gender Reference Value (mL) Note (Kawel-Boehm et al. 2020) 464 male (55, 15) papillary muscles included in mass 485 female (43, 11) papillary muscles included in mass 832 male (53, 18) papillary muscles included in volume 1064 female (39, 12) papillary muscles included in volume (Hudsmith et al. 2005) 63 male (50, 16) 45 female (42, 12) (Suinesiaputra et al. 2018) 4413 (59.2 20.3) 48% male in full cohort with size 4874 (Petersen et al. 2017) 368 male 39-97 432 female 31-68
Clinical Associations: The indexed end-diastolic volume is decreased in type 2 diabetic patients (T2DM) (Shang et al. 2018). The indexed end-diastolic volume is greater in patients with HOCM (Bi et al. 2022).
ICC:
End-diastolic: 0.91
End-systolic: 0.87
Mass (LVM)
The mass of LV myocardium is usually derived by multiplying the LV volume with the clinically-accepted value 1.05 g/mL or 1.055 g/mL (Myerson, Bellenger, and Pennell 2002; Fuchs et al. 2012, 2016; Bai et al. 2018).
Definition: Mass of myocardium
Calculation: LVM = LVEDV × 1.05
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
End-diastolic:
Study Cohort Size Gender Age Reference Value (g) Note (Kawel-Boehm et al. 2020) 464 male (121, 28) papillary muscles included in mass 485 female (83, 21) papillary muscles included in mass 832 male (105, 24) papillary muscles included in volume 1064 female (73, 15) papillary muscles included in volume (Hudsmith et al. 2005) 63 male (123, 21) 45 female (96, 27) (Suinesiaputra et al. 2018) 4413 (59.2 20.3) 48% male in full cohort with size 4874 (Petersen et al. 2017) 368 male 64-141 432 female 46-93 (Ruijsink et al. 2020) 304 male 45-54 71-137 384 male 55-64 73-126 241 male 65-74 74-123 297 female 45-54 51-91 322 female 55-64 52-87 213 female 65-74 54-86 (Le Ven et al. 2016) 196 male (125, 25) average age 26.7 years 238 female (82, 15) average age 25.8 years
Clinical Associations: Increased LV mass is a strong predictor of LAA thrombus in persistent AF (Boyd et al. 2013), HOCM (Bi et al. 2022), and incident HF (Bluemke et al. 2008).
ICC:
- End-diastolic: 0.97
Mass/Volume (M/V)
As LVH can occur either through ventricular dilation or wall thickening, a 4-tiered classification of LVH using both LVEDV and concentricity are developed to provide prognostic information beyond simple measure of LV mass. The concentricity can be measured using either mass/volume (M/V), or M/V<sup>0.67</sup> (Khouri et al. 2010).
Definition: The ratio of LV mass and LVEDV.
Calculation: M/V = LVM/LVEDV
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
End-diastolic:
Study Cohort Size Reference Value (g/mL) Note (Khouri et al. 2010) 1908 (1.6, 0.3) 53% male in cohort
Clinical Associations: Increased LV mass is a strong predictor of LAA thrombus in persistent AF (Boyd et al. 2013), HOCM (Bi et al. 2022), and incident HF (Bluemke et al. 2008). Patients with hypertension tend to have both elevated LV mass and M/V ratio (Yoneyama et al. 2012; Méndez et al. 2018), a pattern that also extends to individuals with incident coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke (Bluemke et al. 2008). T2DM patients show increased M/V ratios relative to healthy controls (Shang et al. 2018). The M/V ratio also serves as a useful metric for differentiating physiological hypertrophy in athletes from pathological hypertrophy seen in HCM (Méndez et al. 2018).
ICC: 0.82
Sphericity Index
The extent of LV shape abnormality can be graded by defining an index of sphericity called the sphericity index (Lamas et al. 1989).
Definition: LV volume divided by the volume of of a sphere whose diameter is equal to the LV longitudinal diameter (major axis of the ventricle) (Lamas et al. 1989; Kono et al. 1991; Aquaro et al. 2017).
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
End-diastolic:
Study Cohort Size Gender Age Reference Value Note (Kono et al. 1991) 8 (0.25, 0.01) 5 males, 3 females (Aquaro et al. 2017) 33 male 16-20 0.22-0.40 27 male 21-30 0.24-0.40 28 male 31-40 0.23-0.40 28 male 41-50 0.24-0.40 29 male 51-60 0.23-0.40 28 male >60 0.26-0.40 20 female 16-20 0.24-0.41 24 female 21-30 0.22-0.40 23 female 31-40 0.23-0.42 23 female 41-50 0.20-0.42 22 female 51-60 0.26-0.42 23 female >60 0.31-0.42 (A. Maceira et al. 2006) 10 male 40-49 0.22-0.47 10 male 50-59 0.22-0.48 10 male 60-69 0.23-0.48 10 male 70-79 0.23-0.49 10 female 40-49 0.27-0.53 10 female 50-59 0.27-0.53 10 female 60-69 0.27-0.53 10 female 70-79 0.27-0.53 Note: The extracted phenotypes are larger than the reference ranges, as the diameters are smaller than the reference range.
End-systolic:
Study Cohort Size Gender Age Reference Value Note (Kono et al. 1991) 8 (0.14, 0.01) 5 males, 3 females (A. Maceira et al. 2006) 10 male 40-49 0.10-0.30 10 male 50-59 0.09-0.29 10 male 60-69 0.08-0.28 10 male 70-79 0.07-0.27 10 female 40-49 0.10-0.37 10 female 50-59 0.08-0.35 10 female 60-69 0.06-0.33 10 female 70-79 0.04-0.31
Clinical Associations: Both end-diastolic and end-systolic sphericity index are higher in patients with mitral regurgitation (MR) (Kono et al. 1991).
ICC:
End-diastolic: Note: 0.47
End-systolic: Note: 0.14
<figure> <img src="/latex/images/ventricle/sphericity_index.png" id="fig:LV_sphericity_index" alt="Scheme of calculation of sphericity index. The sphericity index is defined as the ratio in percentage between LV volume and the volume of the sphere (Aquaro et al. 2017)" /><figcaption aria-hidden="true">Scheme of calculation of sphericity index. The sphericity index is defined as the ratio in percentage between LV volume and the volume of the sphere <span>(Aquaro et al. 2017)</span></figcaption> </figure>
Right Ventricle (RV)
Although the importance of RV function has been neglected for decades, accumulating evidence has proven its dramatic clinical relevance (Muraru et al. 2022).
Volume
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
End-diastolic:
Study Cohort Size Gender Age Reference Value (mL) Note (A. M. Maceira et al. 2006) 10 male 20-29 127-227 10 male 30-39 121-221 10 male 40-49 116-216 10 male 50-59 111-210 10 male 60-69 105-205 10 male 70-79 100-200 10 female 20-29 100-184 10 female 30-39 94-178 10 female 40-49 87-172 10 female 50-59 81-166 10 female 60-69 75-160 10 female 70-79 69-153 (Kawel-Boehm et al. 2020) 896 male (166, 39) 977 female (122, 27) (Petersen et al. 2017) 368 male 124-248 432 female 85-168 End-systolic:
Study Cohort Size Gender Age Reference Value (mL) Note (A. M. Maceira et al. 2006) 10 male 20-29 38-98 10 male 30-39 34-94 10 male 40-49 29-89 10 male 50-59 25-85 10 male 60-69 20-80 10 male 70-79 16-76 10 female 20-29 29-82 10 female 30-39 25-77 10 female 40-49 20-72 10 female 50-59 15-68 10 female 60-69 11-63 10 female 70-79 6-58 (Kawel-Boehm et al. 2020) 896 male (73, 22) 977 female (50, 15) (Petersen et al. 2017) 368 male 47-123 432 female 27-77
Clinical Associations: RV is less dilated and hypertrophied in patients with HFpEF compared with HFpEF-PH than those with PAH (Van Wezenbeek et al. 2022). Adults with Ebstein’s anomaly often present with right ventricular (RV) dilation, as evidenced by increased indexed RV end-diastolic volume (Lee et al. 2013).
ICC:
End-diastolic: 0.92
End-systolic: 0.92
Mass
Acquisition Type: SAX, LAX
Reference Range:
Study Cohort Size Gender Age Reference Value (g) Note (A. M. Maceira et al. 2006) 10 male 20-29 42-99 10 male 30-39 40-97 10 male 40-49 39-95 10 male 50-59 37-94 10 male 60-69 35-92 10 male 70-79 33-90 10 female 20-29 33-74 10 female 30-39 31-72 10 female 40-49 28-70 10 female 50-59 26-68 10 female 60-69 24-66 10 female 70-79 22-63
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